TMQ

А как вы думаете, имеет ли этот “синдром толпы” религиозную почву? Вернее сказать влияет ли религия на формирование этого синдрома? По моему да. Имеется в виду не чистое учение (Коран, Библия), а их практическое применение, которое очень часто отличается или искажает теоретические постулаты. Мoжет быть такая дискуссия должна быть в отдельной теме, пусть модеры решают.

Нацменьшинства в Армении получат 10 миллионов драмов 12 Ноября 2004 [15:40] - Day.Az Правительство Армении приняло решение о распределении 10 миллионов драмов (около $20 тысяч), предусмотренных госбюджетом на программу по государственному содействию национальным меньшинствам. Об этом РИА "Новости" сообщили в пятницу в управлении по связям с общественностью и прессой аппарата правительства Армении. В настоящее время в Армении проживают, в частности, российская, украинская, белорусская, греческая, ассирийская общины. URL: http://www.day.az/news/armenia/15800.html

А возможен ли такой вариант? "Однако формула "общего государства" вовсе не исчерпывает перечень нетривиальных политических методов решения карабахской проблемы. Сделать Нагорный Карабах независимым и от Азербайджана, и от Армении нельзя. Однако можно закрепить принадлежность этой территории обоим государствам. Иными словами, оставаясь в составе Азербайджана, Нагорный Карабах может одновременно войти в состав Армении. В международном праве такой режим совместного владения территорией именуется кондоминиумом." НАГОРНЫЙ КАРАБАХ КАК СОВМЕСТНОЕ ВЛАДЕНИЕ

Этнические конфликты на Кавказе, 1988—1994 г. АЛЕКСЕЙ ЗВЕРЕВ CПОРНЫЕ ГРАНИЦЫ НА КАВКАЗЕ

Пара интересных статей. Понять другой народ-Как Азербайджан был включен в Российскую империю и в чем истоки его проблем Понять другой народ-Статья вторая: испытание независимостью Очень черное золото-Кто имеет нефть, имеет приключения

Opera не показывает правую часть шапки.

BRITANNICA Ani ancient city site in extreme eastern Turkey. Ani lies east of Kars and along the Arpa?ay (Akhuryan) River, which forms the border with Armenia to the east. Situated along a major east-west caravan route, Ani first rose to prominence in the 5th century AD and had become a flourishing town by the time Ashot III the Merciful (reigned 952–977), the Bagratid king of Armenia, transferred his capital there from Kars in 961. Thus began a golden age for the city, which was beautified under two subsequent Bagratid rulers. The many churches built there during this period included some of the finest examples of medieval architecture. With a peak population of about 100,000 by the early 11th century, Ani was larger than any European city and rivaled Baghdad, Cairo, and Constantinople in its size and magnificence. It remained the chief city of Armenia until Mongol raids in the 13th century and a devastating earthquake in 1319 sent it into an irreparable decline. Eventually the site was abandoned. The handful of surviving churches and the remnants of the city walls attest to the extraordinary quality of Armenian stonework during the Middle Ages. The modern Turkish village of Ocakli is nearby.

BRITANNICA Turks in the region ...As early as the 10th century, irregular groups of Turkmen warriors (also called Oguz, Ghuzz, or Oghuz), originally from Central Asia, began to move into Azerbaijan and to encroach upon the Armenian principalities of Vaspurakan, Taik, and Ani along the easternmost border of the Byzantine Empire. Armenian historians of this period speak of their adversaries as “. . . long-haired Turkmens armed with bow and lance on horses which flew like the wind . . . .” The Armenian princes appealed to Constantinople for protection from these forays, and in 1000 the emperor Basil II (ruled 976–1025) annexed the domains of David of Taik. In 1021 the ruler of Vaspurakan ceded his lands to Basil because he was unable to withstand the Turkmen incursions; the following year, Sempad of Ani handed his principality over to the emperor on the condition that he be allowed to continue to rule until his death, and Ani was subsequently conquered outright by the Byzantines in 1045. These attempts by the Byzantines to reorganize their eastern frontier doubtless weakened their defenses and may have ultimately brought about the total collapse of the empire. West Asia includes the highlands of Anatolia, the Greater Caucasus Mountains, and the Armenian and Iranian highlands. The highlands of Anatolia—the Pontic mountain system that parallels the Black Sea, and the Taurus and Anatolian tablelands—are areas of severe fragmentation, heightened erosional dissection, and isolated occurrences of volcanism. The Greater Caucasus Mountains are a series of upfolded ranges generally running northwest to southeast between the Black and Caspian seas. The Armenian Highland, which includes the Lesser Caucasus and the Kurt mountains, is severely fragmented. Recent uplifting, in the form of a knot of mountain arcs, took place during a period of vigorous volcanism that occurred in the Cenozoic. The region is seismically active and is known for its destructive earthquakes.

BRITANNICA Azerbaijan *) Russian suzerainty After a series of wars between the Russian Empire and Iran, the treaties of Gulistan (1813) and Turkmenchai (1828) established a new border between the empires. Russia acquired Baku, Shirvan, Ganja, Nakhichevan (Nax?ivan), and Yerevan. Henceforth the Azerbaijani Turks of Caucasia were separated from the majority of their linguistic and religious compatriots, who remained in Iran. Azerbaijanis on both sides of the border remained largely rural, though a small merchant class and working class appeared in the second half of the 19th century. As Baku became the major source of oil for Russia, tens of thousands of Iranian, Armenian, and Russian workers streamed to the Abseron Peninsula in search of employment, and Russian economic and political influence could be felt in both parts of Azerbaijan. As the source of employment and the home of the nascent Azerbaijani intelligentsia and revolutionary movement, Baku radiated its influence in Iranian Azerbaijan as well as north of the Aras (Araz) River. No specifically Azerbaijani state existed before 1918, and, rather than seeing themselves as part of a continuous national tradition, like the Georgians and Armenians, the Muslims of Transcaucasia saw themselves as part of the larger Muslim world, the ummah. They were referred to as “Tatars” by the Russians; the ethnonym Azerbaijani (azarbayjanli) came into use in the prerevolutionary decades at first among urban nationalist intellectuals. Only in the Soviet period did it become the official and widely accepted name for this people. Incorporation into the Russian Empire provided a new outlet for educated Azerbaijanis, some of whom turned from their religious upbringing to a more secular outlook. Prominent among the early scholars and publicists who began the study of the Azerbaijani language were Abbas Qoli Agha Bakikhanov, who wrote poetry as well as histories of the region, and Mirza Fath 'Ali Akhundzada (called Akhundov in Russian), author of the first Azerbaijani plays. Though eventually these figures would be incorporated into a national narrative as predecessors of the Turkic revival, a variety of conflicting impulses stimulated early Azerbaijani intellectuals—loyalty to the tsarist empire, Persian culture, and a longing for Western learning. Although no single, coherent ideology or movement characterized the Azerbaijani intelligentsia, by 1905 a growing number of writers and journalists adopted the program of the nationalist intellectual 'Ali bay Huseynzada: “Turkify, Islamicize, Europeanize” (“Turklashtirmak, Islamlashtirmak, Avrupalashtirmak”). The town of Baku, which by 1901 produced more than half of the world's output of petroleum, was complexly segregated, with Russians and Armenians in the central part of the town and Muslims clustered in distinct districts. As social resentments festered, particularly in times of political uncertainty, ethnic and religious differences defined the battle lines; bloody clashes between Azerbaijanis and local Armenians took place in 1905 and 1918. A hierarchy of skills, education, and wages placed Muslims on the bottom and Christians at the top. By virtue of a quota on non-Christian representation and a system of suffrage based on property holdings, the Baku city duma (legislative council) remained in the hands of wealthy Armenians and Russians. Azerbaijanis remained on the fringe of the labour movement and were indifferent to or ignorant of the aspirations of both their socialist and nationalist intellectuals. None of the small parties and political groups that arose after 1905 commanded much of a following beyond the intelligentsia, though Musavat (“Equality”), founded in 1911 and led by Mehmed Emin Rasulzada, proved most enduring. Anxiety about the Armenian “threat,” a perception of their own distance from and hostility to this privileged element within their midst, and a feeling that Azerbaijanis were connected in important ways to other Muslims, particularly Turks, became part of an Azerbaijani sense of self. Independent Azerbaijan With the Bolshevik victory in October 1917 and the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Caucasian front, Azerbaijani leaders joined Armenians and Georgians in a brief experiment in Transcaucasian autonomy (February to April 1918). An even briefer attempt at unity in an independent federative republic of Transcaucasia (April to May) fell apart, and finally three separate independent republics were established. Azerbaijan was declared an independent state on May 28, 1918, but Baku remained in the hands of a communist government, assisted by local Armenian soldiers, who had put down a Muslim revolt in March. Allied with the advancing Turkish army, in September 1918 the Azerbaijani nationalists secured their capital, Baku, and engaged in a massacre of the Armenians. However, even as they secured control of Baku, the Azerbaijani nationalists were faced with a mixed population of Russian, Armenian, and Muslim workers who had undergone a long socialist and trade-unionist education. Among the peasantry on whom they depended, national consciousness was still largely absent, and the nationalists were never fully secure in Baku, where Bolshevism had deep roots. With the end of World War I the Turks withdrew; they were replaced by the British, who remained until August 1919. The fragile republic received de facto recognition from the Allies on Jan. 15, 1920, but when the Red Army marched into Baku in April 1920 there was little resistance. The Soviet and post-Soviet periods The Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic lasted 71 years. It was part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic from 1922 until 1936 and, like Georgia and Armenia, it experienced considerable economic development, urbanization, and industrialization. Although education in Azerbaijani was promoted and Azerbaijanis were placed in positions of power, the republic was tightly controlled by Moscow, especially during the years of Stalin's rule (1928–53) when M.A. Bagirov headed the Azerbaijani Communist Party. Becoming a more urban, educated, and socially mobile society, Azerbaijan was divided between more traditional, backward rural areas and the cosmopolitan city of Baku. After the death of Stalin, the republic enjoyed somewhat greater autonomy, and the national political and intellectual elites flourished. When conflict with the Armenians of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region within Azerbaijan exploded in February 1988, these elites provided the leaders both for the oppositional Azerbaijan Popular Front and for their communist opponents. Violence directed against Armenians in Sumgait in 1988 and in Baku in 1990 and continual warfare between the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh and the Azerbaijanis led to military action by Moscow against the republic in January 1990. Until 1992 the Communist Party of Azerbaijan retained its power. After the abortive coup against the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Moscow in August 1991, Azerbaijan declared itself independent, and the head of the party, Ayaz Mutalibov, was elected its first president. In May 1992 the Azerbaijan Popular Front overthrew Mutalibov and forced new elections, in which its candidate, Abulfez Elchibey, emerged victorious on a platform of separating from the Commonwealth of Independent States and maintaining control over Nagorno-Karabakh. Elchibey was himself overthrown in June 1993 by Heydar Aliyev, a former KGB official and leader of the Azerbaijani Communist Party who had adopted the rhetoric of Azerbaijani nationalism. By the mid-1990s Azerbaijan faced continuing political instability, the loss of substantial amounts of its territory to the Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh, and an uncertain economic future. *) Информация про Азербайджан может быть не полная. Буду благодарна за дополнения. ТМQ

BRITANNICA Azeri Any member of a Turkic people living chiefly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and in the region of Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran. At the turn of the 21st century there were some 7,500,000 Azerbaijani in the republic and neighbouring areas and more than 15,000,000 in Iran. They are mainly sedentary farmers and herders, although some of those in the republic have found employment in various industries. Most Azerbaijani are Shi'ite Muslims. They speak Azeri, a language belonging to the southwestern branch of Turkic languages. The Azerbaijani are of mixed ethnic origin, the oldest element deriving from the indigenous population of eastern Transcaucasia and possibly from the Medians of northern Persia. This population was Persianized during the period of the Sasanian dynasty of Iran (3rd–7th century AD), but, after the region's conquest by the Seljuq Turks in the 11th century, the inhabitants were Turkicized, and further Turkicization of the population occurred in the ensuing centuries

BRITANNICA Armenian Massacres The greatest single disaster in the history of the Armenians came with the outbreak of World War I. In 1915 the Young Turk government resolved to deport the whole Armenian population of about 1,750,000 to Syria and Mesopotamia. It regarded the Turkish Armenians—despite pledges of loyalty by many—as a dangerous foreign element bent on conspiring with the pro-Christian tsarist enemy to upset the Ottoman campaign in the east. In what would later be known as the “first genocide” of the 20th century, hundreds of thousands of Armenians were driven from their homes, massacred, or marched until they died. The death toll of Armenians in Turkey has been estimated at between 600,000 and 1,500,000 in the years from 1915 to 1923. (See Researcher's Note: Armenian massacres.) Tens of thousands emigrated to Russia, Lebanon, Syria, France, and the United States, and the western part of the historical homeland of the Armenian people was emptied of Armenians. Researchers notes: Statistics are disputed regarding the Armenian population in Ottoman Anatolia at the outbreak of World War I and the number of Armenians killed during deportation. The most disparate numbers have been promulgated by Turkish and Armenian sources; scholars agree that propaganda from both sides has greatly confounded the issue. No systematic census was taken in Turkey before 1927, although conflicting population statistics were variously reported by the Ottoman government, religious institutions such as the Armenian Patriarchate, and assorted European observers. In 1896 the Ottoman government recorded 1,144,000 Armenians out of a total Anatolian population of 13,241,000. In an examination of government statistics collected shortly before World War I, Justin McCarthy estimates that some 1,500,000 Armenians lived in Ottoman Anatolia in 1912 out of approximately 17,500,000 inhabitants. Various scholars cite the Armenian Patriarchate, which recorded from 1,845,000 to 2,100,000 Armenians in Anatolia prior to 1915. Other estimates range from as low as 1,000,000 to more than 3,500,000. Questions have been raised about the reliability of some local data; therefore, some preference has been given to data collected by European observers. One of the more renowned compilers of Western research, reports, and available data was Arnold J. Toynbee, who served during the war as an intelligence officer for the British Foreign Office. Toynbee calculated that some 1,800,000 Armenians had lived in Anatolia prior to the war. Taking into account the reports of Toynbee and other aforementioned sources, Britannica has taken the figure of 1,750,000 as a reasonable representation of the Armenian population in Anatolia prior to 1915. Also problematic are reports regarding the number of Armenians who died during deportation (1915-16). Estimates range widely--from 200,000 claimed by some Turkish sources to 2,000,000 claimed by some Armenians--although most scholars agree that the lack of death records makes a final determination impossible. The Turkish government repeats Talat Pasa's original claim that some 300,000 Armenians had died in deportation. As with the problem of the aforementioned population statistics, the subjectivity of some sources has caused greater value to be placed on the reports of European observers. Toynbee judges that some 600,000 Armenians died or were massacred during deportation, possibly 600,000 more survived in exile, and another 600,000 either escaped or went into hiding. By independent calculation, McCarthy has arrived at the same number of deaths, and many historians either cite Toynbee directly or provide similar estimates.

BRITANNICA Nagorno-Karabakh also spelled Nagorno-karabach, region of southwestern Azerbaijan. It occupies an area of 1,700 square miles (4,400 square km) on the northeastern flank of the Karabakh Range of the Lesser Caucasus and extends from the crest line of the range to the margin of the Kura River lowland at its foot. Nagorno-Karabakh's environments vary from steppe on the Kura lowland through dense forest of oak, hornbeam, and beech on the lower mountain slopes to birchwood and alpine meadows higher up. The peaks of the Karabakh Range culminate in Mount Gyamysh (12,218 feet [3,724 m]). Vineyards, orchards, and mulberry groves for silkworms are intensively developed in the valleys of Nagorno-Karabakh. Cereal grains are grown, and cattle, sheep, and pigs are kept. The region has some light industry and many food-processing plants. Xank?ndi (formerly Stepanakert) is the chief industrial centre. The area, historically known as Artsakh, was acquired by Russia in 1813, and in 1923 the Soviet government established it as an autonomous oblast (province) of the Azerbaijan S.S.R., even though its population was about 80 percent Armenian. Isolated from the Armenian S.S.R. to the west by the Karabakh Range, Nagorno-Karabakh thus became a minority enclave within Azerbaijan. The region developed quietly through decades of Soviet rule, but in 1988 the ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh began agitating for the transfer of their oblast to Armenian jurisdiction, a demand that was strongly opposed by both the Azerbaijan S.S.R. and the Soviet government. Ethnic antagonisms between Armenians and Azerbaijanis grew inflamed over the issue, and when Armenia and Azerbaijan gained their independence from the collapsing Soviet Union in 1991, Armenians and Azerbaijanis in the enclave went to war. By the mid-1990s the Karabakh Armenian forces, supported by Armenia, had gained control of much of southwestern Azerbaijan, including Nagorno-Karabakh and territory connecting the enclave with Armenia.

BRITANNICA 15-18th Centuries After the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, Armenians, as non-Muslims, were greatly disadvantaged. Yet they retained, as zimm?s (Arabic: dhimmi) or “people of the Book,” the management of their own affairs in what would later be known as the millet system. By the late 18th century the Armenian patriarch of Constantinople headed the Armenian community, the ermeni millet, though the amira (wealthy Armenians) and sarafs (moneylenders) usually controlled his election and administration. The number of Armenians was increased at the beginning of the 16th century by the Ottoman conquest of Cilicia and Greater Armenia. On the death of Timur in 1405, the eastern Armenian regions had passed into the hands of rival Turkmen tribal confederacies, the Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep) and the Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep), until the defeat of the Ak Koyunlu by the Persian Shah Esma'il I in 1502. Armenia again became the battlefield between two powerful neighbours, and in 1514–16 the Ottomans wrested it from Persian rule. During the war that broke out in 1602, Shah 'Abbas I strove to regain the lost territories, and in 1604–05, with the aim of stimulating trade in his dominions, he forcibly transferred thousands of Armenians from Julfa to Esfahan, where those who survived the march settled in the quarter named New Julfa. At the peace of 1620, while the greater part of Armenia remained in Ottoman hands, Persia regained the regions of Yerevan, Nakhichevan (Nax?ivan), and Karabakh. In mountainous Karabakh a group of five Armenian maliks (princes) succeeded in conserving their autonomy and maintained a short period of independence (1722–30) during the struggle between Persia and Turkey at the beginning of the 18th century; despite the heroic resistance of the Armenian leader David Beg, the Turks occupied the region but were driven out by the Persians under Nader Qoli (the future Nader Shah) in 1735. In New Julfa the Armenian merchants played an important role in the economic life of Iran, serving as links between Europe (including England, Spain, and Russia) and the East, exporting Persian silk and importing such items as glass, clocks, spectacles, and paintings. During the 17th century they amassed great wealth and built many magnificent churches and mansions, thereby attracting Persian envy, and from the beginning of the 18th century, when Nader Shah (1736–47) penalized them with excessive taxation, they began a gradual decline that has continued to the present day. 19th century At the beginning of the 19th century the Russians advanced into the Caucasus. In 1813 the Persians were obliged to acknowledge Russia's authority over Georgia, northern Azerbaijan, and Karabakh, and in 1828 they ceded Yerevan and Nakhichevan. Contact with liberal thought in Russia and western Europe was a factor in the Armenian cultural renaissance of the 19th century. In Turkey, the Armenians benefited with the rest of the population from the measures of reform known as the Tanzimat, and in 1863 a special Armenian constitution was recognized by the Ottoman government. But social progress in Turkey was slow, and the Armenians in Anatolia were subject to many abuses. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, in which Russian Armenians had taken part, Russia insisted in the Treaty of San Stefano that reforms be carried out among the sultan's Armenian subjects and that their protection against the Kurds be guaranteed or Russia would continue to occupy Turkish Armenia. This demand was softened at the Congress of Berlin, but the “Armenian Question” remained a factor in international politics, with Great Britain taking on the role of Turkey's protector until the end of the century. The socialist H?nchak (“Bell”) party was founded in 1887 and the more nationalist Dashnaktsutyun (“Confederacy”) party, whose members were commonly called Dashnaks, in 1890, and in the face of increasing Armenian demands for much-needed reforms both the Turkish and Russian governments grew more repressive. In 1895, after Abd?lhamid II had felt compelled to promise Britain, France, and Russia that he would carry out reforms, large-scale systematic massacres took place in the provinces. In 1896, following the desperate occupation of the Ottoman Bank by 26 young Dashnaks, more massacres broke out in the capital. In Russia both Tsar Alexander III and his son Nicholas II closed hundreds of Armenian schools, libraries, and newspaper offices, and in 1903 Nicholas confiscated the property of the Armenian church.

BRITANNICA Cilician Armenia (Lesser Armenia) On the collapse of Greater Armenia many Armenians emigrated to Georgia, Poland, and Galicia, while others crossed into Cilicia, where some colonies had already settled at the end of the 10th century. One of Gagik II's lieutenants, a certain Ruben, established himself about 1080 at Bardzrberd in the Taurus Mountains, and another noble named Oshin at Lambron: the former became the founder of the Rubenid dynasty of barons and kings who ruled Cilicia until 1226, and the latter was the ancestor of the Hetumid dynasty, which succeeded them and ruled until 1342. The barons Constantine I (1092–1100), Thoros I (1100–29), and Levon I (1129–39) enlarged their domains at the expense of the Byzantines, and by 1132 Vahka, Sis, Anazarbus, Mamistra, Adana, and Tarsus were under Rubenid rule. Although the Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus succeeded in annexing the whole of Cilicia during 1137–38, Thoros II (1145–68) and Mleh (1170–75) restored Armenian rule, with some Turkish aid. Levon I the Great (1199–1219), an ally of the German emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, received the royal crown from Frederick's son Henry VI and Pope Celestine III and was crowned king of Armenia in Tarsus in 1199 by the cardinal Conrad von Wittelsbach. The Byzantine emperor lost no time in sending a crown also, but Little Armenia was now firmly allied to the West. Intermarriage with Frankish crusading families from the West was common, and Frankish religious, political, and cultural influence, though resisted by many barons, was strong. Levon reformed his court and kingdom on Western models, and many French terms entered the language. Little Armenia played an important role in the trade of the Venetians and Genoese with the East, and the port of Lajazzo (on the Gulf of Iskenderun) rivaled Alexandria. Levon left no son, and the throne passed to his daughter Zabel. Her first husband, Philip of Antioch, who refused to accept the Armenian faith—Levon's lip service to Rome as the price of his coronation being largely ignored—was deposed by the barons, and the regent Constantine, who was baron of Lambron and a descendant of Oshin, arranged the marriage of Zabel to his son Hetum (Hayton, or Hethum) I (1226–69), the first of the Hetumid dynasty. Hetum employed the Mongols against the growing menace of the Mamluks of Egypt and was present with the Mongol army that entered the Syrian cities of Aleppo and Damascus in 1260. His successors followed his policy, but the Mongols weakened and, after their defeat in 1303 near Damascus, were unable to protect Cilicia. On the death, without heir, of Levon V, the crown passed to Guy de Lusignan, the eldest son of Hetum II's sister Zabel and her husband Amaury de Lusignan (Amalric of Cyprus). He was assassinated by the barons in 1344 for doctrinal reasons, and the next two kings, Constantine IV and V, were elected from their own ranks. On the assassination of Constantine V, the crown passed again to a Lusignan, to Guy's nephew Levon VI (or V; 1374–75). By this time, as a result of the Mamluk advance, little remained of Armenia except Sis and Anazarbus; Lajazzo had finally fallen in 1347, followed by Adana, Tarsus, and the Cilician plain in 1359. In 1375 the capital of Sis fell to the Mamluks, and the last king of Armenia was captured; ransomed in 1382, he died in Paris in 1393. The title “King of Armenia” passed to the kings of Cyprus, thence to the Venetians, and was later claimed by the house of Savoy, but from the end of the 14th century the history of Armenia as separate states is replaced by the history of Armenians under foreign domination.

BRITANNICA After Arabs The election by the nobles of Smbat's son Ashot I the Great, who had been accepted as “prince of princes” by the Arabs in 862, to be king of Armenia in 885 was recognized by both caliph and emperor. Throughout the 10th century, art and literature flourished. Ashot III the Merciful (952–977) transferred his capital to Ani and began to make it into one of the architectural gems of the Middle Ages. The Bagratids of Ani, who bore the title of shahanshah (“king of kings”), first conferred upon Ashot II the Iron by the caliph in 922, were not the sole rulers of Armenia. In 908 the Artsruni principate of Vaspurakan became a kingdom recognized by the caliph; in 961 Mushegh, the brother of Ashot III, founded the Bagratid kingdom of Kars; and in 970 the prince of Eastern Siuniq declared himself a king. By the time of the Seljuq invasions in the 11th century, the Armenian kingdoms had already been destroyed from the west. The province of Taron had been annexed to the Byzantine Empire in 968, and the expansionist policy of Basil II finally extinguished Armenian independence. The possessions of David of Tayq were annexed in 1000, and the kingdom of Vaspurakan in 1022. In the latter year, the Bagratid king of Ani, Yovhannes-Smbat, was compelled to make the emperor heir to his estates, and in 1045, despite the resistance of Gagik II, Ani was seized by Constantine IX Monomachus. The Byzantine conquest was short-lived: in 1048 Togrul led the first Seljuq raid into Armenia, in 1064 Ani and Kars fell to Alp-Arslan, and after the Battle of Manzikert (1071) most of the country was in Turkish hands. In 1072 the Kurdish Shaddadids received Ani as a fief. A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun. In the 12th century many former Armenian regions became parts of Georgia, and between 1236 and 1242 the whole of Armenia and Georgia fell into the hands of the Mongols. Armenian life and learning, centred around the church, continued in monasteries and village communities.

BRITANNICA Armenians Armenian Hay, plural Hayq or Hayk member of a people with an ancient culture who originally lived in the region known as Armenia, which comprised what is now northeastern Turkey and the Republic of Armenia. Although some remain in Turkey, more than three million Armenians live in the republic; large numbers also live in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and other areas of the Caucasus and the Middle East. Many other Armenians have migrated to Europe and North America. The Armenians are the descendants of a branch of the Indo-Europeans. The ancient Greek historians Herodotus and Eudoxus of Rhodes related the Armenians to the Phrygians—who entered Asia Minor from Thrace—and to the peoples of the ancient kingdom upon whom the Phrygians imposed their rule and language. Known to the Persians as Armina and to the Greeks as Armenioi, the Armenian people call themselves Hayq (singular: Hay) and their country Hayastan, and they look back to a folk hero, Hayk. The Armenian language is Indo-European, but the phonetics and grammar have some features in common with the Caucasian languages. The Armenians are traditionally members of either the Monophysite Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) church or the Armenian Catholic branch of the Roman Catholic church. Formation of the statehood The Armenians were not able to achieve the power and independence of their predecessors and were first rapidly incorporated by Cyaxares into the Median empire and then annexed with Media by Cyrus II the Great to form part of the Achaemenian Empire of Persia (c. 550 BC). The country is mentioned as Armina and Armaniya in the Bisitun inscription of Darius I the Great (ruled 522–486 BC) and, according to the 5th-century Greek historian Herodotus, formed part of the 13th satrapy (province) of Persia, the Alarodioi forming part of the 18th. Xenophon's Anabasis, recounting the adventures of Greek mercenaries in Persia, describes the local government about 400 BC as being in the hands of village headmen, part of whose tribute to the Persian king consisted of horses. Armenia continued to be governed by Persian or native satraps until its absorption into the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great (331) and its successor, the Seleucid empire (301). After the defeat of the Seleucid king Antiochus the Great by Rome at the Battle of Magnesia (winter 190–189 BC), his two Armenian satraps, Artashes (Artaxias) and Zareh (Zariadres), established themselves, with Roman consent, as kings of Greater Armenia and Sophene, respectively, thus becoming the creators of an independent Armenia. Artashes built his capital Artashat (Artaxata) on the Aras River near modern Yerevan. The Greek geographer Strabo names the capital of Sophene as Carcathiocerta. An attempt to end the division of Armenia into an eastern and a western part was made about 165 BC when the Artaxiad ruler sought to suppress his rival, but it was left to his descendant Tigranes II the Great (95–55 BC) to establish, by his conquest of Sophene, a unity that was to last almost 500 years. Tigranes (1th Century B.C.) Under Tigranes, Armenia ascended to a pinnacle of power unique in its history and became, albeit briefly, the strongest state in the Roman east. Extensive territories were taken from the kingdom of Parthia in Iran, which was compelled to sign a treaty of alliance. Iberia (Georgia), Albania, and Atropatene had already accepted Tigranes' suzerainty when the Syrians, tired of anarchy, offered him their crown (83 BC). Tigranes penetrated as far south as Ptolemais (modern 'Akko, Israel). Although Armenian culture at the time of Tigranes was Iranian, as it had been and as it was fundamentally to remain for many centuries, Hellenic scholars and actors found a welcome at the Armenian court. The Armenian empire lasted until Tigranes became involved in the struggle between his father-in-law, Mithradates VI of Pontus, and Rome. The Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus captured Tigranocerta, Tigranes' new capital, in 69 BC. He failed to reach Artashat, but in 66 the legions of Pompey, aided by one of Tigranes' sons, succeeded, compelling the king to renounce Syria and other conquests in the south and to become an ally of Rome. Armenia became a buffer state, and often a battlefield, between Rome and Parthia. Maneuvering between larger neighbours, the Armenians gained a reputation for deviousness; the Roman historian Tacitus called them an ambigua gens (“ambiguous people”). 3-6th Centuries Under Diocletian, the Persians were forced to relinquish Armenia, and Tiridates III, the son of Tiridates II, was restored to the throne under Roman protection (c. 287); his reign determined the course of much of Armenia's subsequent history, and his conversion by St. Gregory the Illuminator and the adoption of Christianity as the state religion (c. 314) created a permanent gulf between Armenia and Persia. The Armenian patriarchate became one of the surest stays of the Arsacid monarchy and the guardian of national unity after its fall. The chiefs of Armenian clans, called nakharars, held great power in Armenia, limiting and threatening the influence of the king. The dissatisfaction of the nakharars with Arshak II led to the division of Armenia into two sections, Byzantine Armenia and Persarmenia (c. 390). The former, comprising about one-fifth of Armenia, was rapidly absorbed into the Byzantine state, to which the Armenians came to contribute many emperors and generals. Persarmenia continued to be ruled by an Arsacid in Dvin, the capital after the reign of Khosrow II (330–339), until the deposition of Artashes IV and his replacement by a Persian marzpan (governor) at the request of the nakharars (428). Although the Armenian nobles had thus destroyed their country's sovereignty, a sense of national unity was furthered by the development of an Armenian alphabet and a national Christian literature; culturally, if not politically, the 5th century was a golden age. The Persians were not as successful as the Byzantines in their efforts to assimilate the strongly individualistic Armenian people. The misguided attempt of the Persian Sasanian king Yazdegerd II to impose the Zoroastrian religion upon his Armenian subjects led to war in 451. The Armenian commander St. Vardan Mamikonian and his companions were slain at the Battle of Avarayr (June 2?, 451), but the Persians renounced their plans to convert Armenia by force and deposed their marzpan Vasak of Siuniq, the archtraitor of Armenian tradition. The revolt of 481–484 led by Vahan Mamikonian, Vardan's nephew, secured religious and political freedom for Armenia in return for military aid to Persia, and with the appointment of Vahan as marzpan the Armenians were again largely the arbiters of their own affairs. Their independence was further asserted in 554, when the second Council of Dvin rejected the dyophysite formula of the Council of Chalcedon (451), a decisive step that cut them off from the West as surely as they were already ideologically severed from the East. (According to the dyophysite formula, Christ, the Son of God, consists of two natures, “without confusion, without change, without separation, without division.”) In 536 Justinian I reorganized Byzantine Armenia into four provinces, and, by suppressing the power of the Armenian nobles and by transferring population, he completed the work of Hellenizing the country. In 591 its territory was extended eastward by the emperor Maurice as the price of reestablishing Khosrow II on the throne of Persia. After transporting many Armenians to Thrace, Maurice (according to the Armenian historian Sebeos) advised the Persian king to follow his example and to send “this perverse and unruly nation, which stirs up trouble between us” to fight on his eastern front. During the war between the emperor Phocas and Khosrow, the Persians occupied Byzantine Armenia and appointed a series of marzpans, only to be ousted by the emperor Heraclius in 623. In 628, after the fall of Khosrow, the Persians appointed an Armenian noble, Varaztirotz Bagratuni, as governor. He quickly brought Armenia under Byzantine rule but was exiled for plotting against Heraclius (635). Arab rule The first, unsuccessful, Arab raid into Armenia in 640 found the defense of the country in the hands of the Byzantine general Procopius and the nakharar Theodor Rshtuni. Unable to prevent the pillage of Dvin in 642, Theodor in 643 gained a victory over another Arab army and was named commander in chief of the Armenian army by Constans II. In 653, after the truce with Mu'awiyah, then governor of Syria, Constans voluntarily surrendered Armenia to the Arabs, who granted it virtual autonomy and appointed Theodor as governor (ostikan). Theodor's successor, Hamazasp Mamikonian, sided with Byzantium, but after 661 Arab suzerainty was reestablished, although Byzantine-Arab rivalry, Armenian resistance, and reluctance to pay the tribute made the region difficult to govern. An unsuccessful revolt led by Mushegh Mamikonian (771–772) resulted in the virtual extinction of the Mamikonians as a political force in Armenia and in the emergence of the Bagratunis and Artsrunis as the leading noble families. The Arabs' choice in 806 of Ashot Bagratuni the Carnivorous to be prince of Armenia marked the establishment of his family as the chief power in the land. The governor Smbat Ablabas Bagratuni remained loyal to the caliph al-Mutawakkil when al-Mutawakkil sent his general Bugha al-Kabir to bring the rebellious nakharars to submission, although Smbat, too, was dispatched in 855 with the rest of the captive nobles to Samarra'.

BRITANNICA Armenia Armenian Highland Russian Armyanskoye Nagorye, also spelled Arm'anskoje Nagor'e, mountainous region of Transcaucasia. It lies mainly in Turkey, occupies all of Armenia, and includes southern Georgia, western Azerbaijan, and northwestern Iran. The highland covers almost 154,400 square miles (400,000 square km). The average elevation of the Armenian Highland is 5,000 to 6,500 feet (1,500 to 2,000 m), but several peaks exceed 14,000 feet (4,000 m). The highland is a segment of the Mediterranean alpine volcanic zone of folding and has a subtropical continental climate. It is rich in minerals including chromite, gold, and iron Armenian Language Armenian was introduced into the mountainous Transcaucasian region (called Greater Armenia by the Greek historians) by invaders coming from the northern Balkans, probably in the latter part of the 2nd millennium BC. These invaders occupied the region on the shores of Lake Van that had previously been the site of the ancient Urartean kingdom. By the 7th century BC the Armenian language seems to have replaced the tongues of the native population. It is tempting to connect the invasion with the downfall of the Hittite empire in Anatolia. After the introduction of Christianity to Armenia about AD 400, the language began to be written down; an alphabet of 36 letters was invented, according to tradition, by Mesrop Mashtots. (Two letters were added later.) Admirably suited to the phonology of Armenian, it is still used in various forms by Armenians all over the world. The oldest writings in the language date from the 5th century; they are preserved in manuscript form from the 9th century. Grabar, the written language of the 5th century, the golden age of Armenian culture, is traditionally said to be based on the dialect of Tarawn on Lake Van. To what extent the spoken language was split into dialects at that time is not known. The language of the literature from the 5th to the 8th century is remarkably homogeneous, but by the 9th century the influence of the spoken dialects was noticeable, especially in legal and historical texts. Among the Middle Armenian varieties of Grabar, the best known is the 12th- and 13th-century chancellery (court) language of the Armenian kingdom in Cilicia. More or less corrupted versions of Grabar continued as the literary language until the middle of the 19th century.

Чё-то мелкие какие-то "дЭвушки" летают ...

Сюда предлагаю вносить всё, что достоино внимания - источники, ссылки, карты, высказывания, цитаты etc.

Всем привет! Этот взлом показал с одной сороны, что наш форум это именно ФОРУМ, ну а с другой стороны, что нашим “пограничникам” надо быть начеку. Жаль конечно... но всё в наших руках.